EAST MEETS WEST: A Look Into Educational Views and Comparisons of the United States and Singapore.

INTRODUCTION

The Third International Mathematics and Science Study has generated an enormous amass of commotion as countries commence to compare and contrast worldwide educational systems and standards to an even greater extent than usual.The TIMMS data was proposed to provide a measurement for student achievement in mathematics and science worldwide, while investigating curricular and instructional differences (Eng, 1997).
As the United States discusses the redefining of various educational processes and goals within its educational system, comparisons between the US system and others are usual topics of discussion.One such country, being Singapore, has found itself a hot topic of debate amongst educators and policy makers within the United States educational system.Singapore has been labeled one of the four ëAsian Tigersí.Singapore, along with Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea, have equally earned this title by surpassing most nations with comparable economies and educational systems, with outstanding test results, not only in East Asia, but throughout the world.Education is viewed as one of the social structures that provide a basis for development along with a vehicle to transmit those values and attitudes that are supportive of development.Of course, these educational approaches are not exclusive.The predominant explanation, however, has focused on education as being the means of ìinvesting in human capitalî (Morris, 1996).For example The Economist (1991) expresses that
ìÖthe last lesson is probably the most important:investing in Education pays in spades.The tigerís single biggest source of comparative advantage is their well-educated workers.î

And the IMF (1991) commented that

ìÖone lesson from the past is that the economiesÖwhich [commit] themselves to education and training made great strides in both human development and economic growthî (Morris, 1996).

The question of whether it would be an appropriate decision to emulate the current educational system of Singapore is an on-going debate amongst scholars.Many believe that there exist extreme differences within the culture and government that make it impossible to consider this option of emulation realistic.There is also a population of researchers who disregard the data analysis of the TIMMS information as being unfounded with outlandish rhetoric that has been over-exemplified by the media.These individuals believe that the controls originally designated to allow for fair and meaningful data were not initiated in the correct manner, therefore, allowed an onset of misconstrued information.

TIMMS TEST INTERPRETATIONS

Several possibilities have come to surface as to the reasoning behind Singaporeís TIMMS results.One of the reasons involves the classroom environment within Singapore schools and how it prepares Singapore student for the TIMMS exam setting.Constant practice and review of past examinations allows students to find themselves in a familiar setting within standardized testing environments.Singapore students enter the testing environment highly prepared for standardized examinations. 75% of the items on the TIMMS examination are multiple-choice questions.All of the others request short, closely defined responses.
Within some of the TIMMS items, the limitations for multiple-choice answers are apparent.For example, Item 15 involves solving a linear system of equations but can be answered by substituting the multiple-choice answers into the equation responses.If this method is used this requires no mathematical understanding of the objective at hand (Atkin, 1997).It is well understood that these types of tests assess a very limited amount of student abilities.If goals and standards that strive toward creating a class environment where students work to attain life and job skills are priorities than the TIMMS tests do very little to measure these types of outcomes.When the United States decides that these goals are truly important it becomes much more difficult to determine which countries to imitate.
Conceptual learning is not promoted in the majority of Singapore schools.The focus that is placed on exploration and constructivism within the National Council of Teacherís of Mathematics Principles and Standards for School Mathematics is almost nonexistent.Through constant, rigorous practice students are thought to eventually gain comprehension of topics that were initially taught in a procedural format.Most standardized examinations favor automated or practiced response.Countries who follow these types of classroom practices would receive higher scores on these types of exams.Students within the United States are not made to memorize much information, nor are they gaining a great deal of conceptual knowledge.This causes American students to go into these types of comparative test situations with a variety of handicaps (Menon, 2000).

The attitude toward education is seemingly different between the United States and Singapore.Education quality is seen as a method to obtain upward social mobility in Singapore.Total government expenditures, including those of operating and development, totaled $9.2 billion U.S.in 1994.Of this, 22 percent went toward education (Eng, 1997).Parents begin to ensure their childís educational success from grades as low as kindergarten.Communities provide tutoring centers where students from lower income groups can receive additional assistance as well.It is not unusual for parents to spend between $150 and $650 (U.S. dollars) per month on their childís private academic coaching.This concept causes many educators to express opinions that relay emulation as being an impossible goal (Menon, 2000).The United States is often viewed as being a nation that does not place education at the top of its priority list, yet chooses to glamorize athletes and entertainers.Because of this variance in culture many believe that striving for the goal of duplicating would be all to unrealistic.

STANDARDS AND EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURE

The Singapore Ministry of Education consists of a Ministerial Committee and ten divisions.The Ministry develops national education goals and a coordinated educational plan for the entire country.Every child in Singapore receives at least ten years of general education.This includes six years of primary education along with four years of secondary education.Those who leave secondary school may choose to attend technical-vocational, pre-university, or tertiary courses (Eng, 1997).
At the primary level, pupils study a foundation stage from grades one and four and an orientation stage between grades five and six.The foundation stage focuses on literacy and numerical skills.All students at this stage follow a common curricular, which includes English, mathematics, and their heritage language, which may be Chinese, Malay, or Tamil as core subjects.Students are assigned to a designated track at the end of grade four in accordance with their educational abilities.All students write a national placement examination at the end of grade six.This examination determines the studentsí suitability for secondary school placement (Eng, 1997).
All students study mathematics from grades one to ten.At the secondary level, all pupils learn elementary mathematics, and students in grades nine and ten enrolled in special course programs may express an interest in doing additional mathematics.At the end of grade ten, special-course students write the General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level mathematics examination, while students enrolled in normal-course levels write the General Certificate of Normal Level mathematics examination.About 75 percent of these students enrolled at the normal level will proceed to take the General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level mathematics examination at the end of the year.At the pre-university level students study mathematics and write the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level mathematics examination.A smaller group of higher-level students will also take the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level mathematics examination.The enrollment rate for female students at this particular level is lower than their male counterparts.90 percent of females and 94 percent of males are enrolled in one or more mathematics subjects at this level (Eng, 1997).

The Ministry of Education, according to student performance on these public examinations, ranks Singapore schools publicly, in newspapers.Schools are rewarded financially for high achievement on these examinations.Teachers are highly praised for improving student test performance.Subjects that are not likely to be on standardized examinations are given very little focus and are often ignored all together.

TEACHER EDUCATION

All teachers in Singapore must have nothing lower than a B-average, in mathematics at the high school level before being allowed into a teacher-education program at the university level (Menon, 2000).The math content present within Singapore high schools is on a more advanced level than that of the United States.The number of hours for pre-service mathematics education courses in Singapore is also at a more increased level than those equivalent programs within the United States.Prospective educators involved in the graduate-level pre-service teacher programs in Singapore take approximately ten hours of mathematics education per week for thirteen weeks, while their counterparts in the United States are required to hold six hours per week for ten weeks.Although it is true that the average teacher in Singapore has a more in depth educational background than those in the United States, the retention rate for teachers in the United States is much higher.Most teachers find the job requirements and atmosphere within the Singapore educational structure to be extremely stressful (Menon, 2000).

CURRICULUM

Students are placed into a ìtrackingî system at an early age in Singapore.This system referred to as ìstreamingî begins as early as third grade.Students who have achieved at greater levels academically are placed into more advanced classes, while students who have achieved lower standards are placed into vocational education tracks.Singapore currently uses a centralized curriculum, where all textbooks are prepared by the Curriculum Division of the Ministry of Education.Each textbook has accompanying workbooks, all prepared and published by the Curriculum Division.The Ministry of Education provides a list of approved textbooks and instructional materials to assist principals, department heads, and subject coordinators in selecting suitable texts for their students.Textbooks normally follow the intended syllabi very closely.Features include explanations, exercises, and enrichment activities (Eng, 1997).
New opportunities for learning may be accompanied by changes in techniques for assessment. Within the United States, public assessments, whether statewide or national, have traditionally exhibited powerful control over what teachers feel obligated to implement.Tests that do measure thought process will never be successful however if they are given at the end of the course where they may never provide the teacher with feedback in a satisfactory amount of time so that more emphasis may be placed on specific skills that the students are lacking (Atkin, 1997).These concerns are very apparent amongst most American school districts.
Singaporeís academic assessment system can be discussed as a series of national examinations and school based assessments (Lim, 1999).These examinations assist in placement, and selection or certification at each key stage of the education system.Scholl-based assessments are largely diagnostic and formative in nature and accompany an integral part of the teaching and learning process.These tests are also used to determine whether or not a student should be allowed to progress to the next academic grade level (Lim, 1999).

Although there are some commonalities between the learning outcomes, The Desired Outcomes of education from Singapore look nothing like the goals listed in standards used throughout the United States.ìEducation is about nurturing the whole child,î remarks the Outcomes.At the end of secondary school, students should

·have moral integrity,

·have care and concern for others,

·be able to work in teams and value every contribution,

·be enterprising and innovative,

·possess a broad-based foundation for further education,

·believe in their ability

·have an appreciation for aesthetics, and

·know and believe in Singapore.

The list of Desired Outcomes form Singapore all end making references to Singapore.Most curricula around the world is developed nationally or as with the United States, intranationally.Even when curricula includes ìglobal or international studiesî only general views from the viewpoint of the United States are used to interpret the rest of the world (Bracey, 2000).

CURRENT ISSUES AND CONCERNS

Singapore has made some of the most ambitious attempts at educational reform.During the 1980ís the government began to stimulate competition between children by selecting potential geniuses at nine and streaming other children in by age eleven.Then during the early 1990ís competitions between schools was boosted by publishing league tables of academic results and, more controversially, allowing elite schools to charge fees.The aim is to create a rigorous meritocracy in which the state scours the population for talent and then allocates that talent into high value-added occupations within Singapore.
While Singapore was trying to increase competition, other Asian countries were striving to reduce it, to a small extent.In Japan, the Ministry of Education, mortified by the annual toll of teenage suicides, has tried to minimize the level of importance that has been awarded to national examinations.National curriculums in both Japan and South Korea have been reduced while encouraging schools to become more creative and experimental in their teaching methods.It is believed that as economies pass from mass-production to high-valued production, schools should aim toward producing more self-confident trendsetters, and fewer well-drilled students (Atkin, 1997).
A statement from the President address at the opening of the first session of the Ninth Parliament in Singapore in May 1997 describes very concisely the governmentís current stand on education.

We must develop our young to think creatively and apply knowledge in innovative ways, while recognizing the wide range of abilities among pupils.We will revise the school curriculum to stretch but not overload our pupils.We will reduce the amount of factual knowledge they must acquire, and do more to build thinking process skills.We will review the system of assessment of both schools and pupils to meet their objectives, while maintaining rigorous standards (Kam, 1999).

Major changes have been implemented into the revised syllabi for mathematics education.Greater emphasis has been placed on the development of mathematical concepts and student ability to apply them in mathematical problem solving. Focus has been placed on ways of adopting effective teaching strategies that will bring out the emphasis of the revised syllabus.These strategies are to:

The main challenge in implementing the revision is to ensure that students are actively engaged in problem-solving activities through the use of teaching strategies.In-service courses have been developed throughout Singapore to familiarize teachers with various teaching strategies to further improve their instruction (Eng, 1997).
The ideological standpoint that Singapore holds on education is quite obvious.There is an overriding belief between education and the economy.The educational system also places a strong belief in providing opportunities fora quality education based on merit, ability, and effort.There has been a intentional policy of singling out students who have been recognized as having special abilities for a talent pool, which continues to provide for middle-level and top-level leadership (Kam, 1999).This system continues to be justified.It is believed that with the relatively small population the amount of talented leaders if limited and therefore when a student is recognized in the academic arena as having exceptional talents they must be given the widest opportunity to develop.The third tenet within the Singapore educational system focuses on the importance of moral values.Students are expected to leave school with an understanding of right and wrong and a concept of their place in society.

COMPARISONS: NCTM PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS FOR SCHOOL MATHEMATICS

The National Council for Teachers of Mathematics Principles and Standards for School Mathematics have focuses on many of the same pertinent issues facing educators and policy makers in the nation of Singapore.It is understood by almost everyone involved that the need for mathematics comprehension in everyday life and in the workplace is at an all time high and will continue to increase.Mathematics is seen as being of great importance in every aspect of human interaction.The quantitative knowledge that is used in everyday life in reference to making significant decisions on voting, insurance, and making purchases all require the type of logical empowering that is developed through mathematics.Problem solving within the workplace require students to actually use application skills to effectively assist in problem situations.Employers are searching for individuals who are not only adequate at the basic production elements of their jobs, but those who come to work each day with those skills required to improve the service for customers, as well as the work environment for employees (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000).
The NCTM Standards seem to provide a similar format for specific goals that are in place for the revised Singapore syllabi.Both place a strong emphasis on problem solving.The ability to problem solve can only be enhanced through exploration.It is believed that students gain comprehension of materials through evaluating their own thinking and that of others.Teachers are encouraged to engage students in technological use when appropriate so that objectives might be met in a more expedient manner ([NCTM],2000).
NCTM Standards do encourage exploration so that students might be encouraged to use informal strategies in problem solving situations.It is believed that students will build on their implicit knowledge.Procedural fluency and conceptual understanding, are thought to be developed through problem solving, reasoning, and argumentation ([NCTM], 2000).Singapore has aims of moving toward similar goals.It is generally understood that student achievement is necessary outside of formal assessment.Singapore students do not, as a whole, encompass problem solving, and leadership skills that are useful in team and work-related atmospheres.

Singapore is moving in a direction that will allow mathematics programs to better enhance every studentís natural desire to learn.The alliance of factual knowledge, procedural efficiency and conceptual understanding will not only assist student performance on standardized tests, but will aid in effectively preparing students for real life hands-on situations that will be presented to them during their adult years.

COMPARISONS: ACHIEVE; FOUNDATIONS FOR SUCCESS

In 1999, Achieve decided to respond to the dismal news from the TIMMS study.Recognizing that middle school mathematics was a critical point for studentsí futures, Achieve brought officials together from various states to discuss possible solutions to the problem of student performance.As stated within the Achieve Foundations for Success document,
ìÖit became clear that improvement in mathematics achievement could occur more quickly and efficiently if states were to work together and compare results (Achieve, 2001). î
There are many similarities between the testing standards that are apparent within the Singapore educational system and those standards set forth within the Achieve document Foundations for Success.

ìProficiency requires much more than ëthe basicsí (Achieve, 2001)î.Achieve strives to focus basic knowledge with conceptual understanding, together with the ability to solve mathematical problems.It is recognized that students should not only be proficient within the classroom, but in the job and home, as well.

Achieve calls for ongoing diagnostic tests as well as an end-of?eighth-grade assessment.It is expected that these two types of tests will reflect the substance and scope of what students are learning in other top-performing countries.Achieve is calling for these tests to be coherent between states.Data may be made public as to comparisons amongst various state test scores for parents, educators, and policy makers to compare.

Achieve regards the interpretation of the TIMMS data as being a mechanism for interpreting the problems of those curriculum standards currently used within the American educational system.It is believed that this study provides evidence that students within the United States fail to meet traditional goals for eighth-grade mathematics.According to the National Assessment of Educational Progress, fewer than 30 percent of American fourth- and eighth-grade students achieve beyond ìbasicî competency levels for their designated grade.By 12th grade fewer than 20 percent of students achieved beyond the ìbasicî level (Achieve, 2001).

Achieve standards are ideally striving toward creating an educational curricular similar to that of Singapore.The purpose behind the creation of the Foundations of Success document can largely be attributed to the interpretation of poor American student performance on the TIMMS examination.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Singapore presents an interesting case of a developing nation, which has made both efficiency and effectiveness major priorities.Singapore is a country with a very small size and a lack of natural resources.Recognizing these facts it has become imperative that Singapore develop human resources as it moves into a more developed economy (Kam, 1999).
Singaporeís success on the TIMMS is not attributable to any one factor.Rather to a number of factors that all aid in the success of the Singapore educational system.Societal mores, centralized curriculum, the frequent regular diet of exercises in preparation for pencil-paper examination, the mathematics background of prospective teachers, the number of hours of mathematics education courses for prospective teachers, and the close supervision of teachers are all contributors to the testing success of the Singapore national school system.The success of Singapore cannot be attributed to the superior conceptual knowledge, problem-solving capabilities, or genetic makeup of Singapore students.The answer to American studentsí lower test scores lies in envisioning a more systematic change that takes into consideration both the values of the culture and the preparation of itís educators (Menon, 2000).
Schools are deliberately created social institutions, which take on certain socio-political-economic realities. This explains the apparent differences between schools in a variety of nations.While they may not mirror society completely, they are heavily influenced by events and trends in society.So as Singapore has entered a new phase in its economic development, new demands are placed on the education system to produce a creative and innovative workforce with the skills required for an increasingly competitive global society (Kam, 1999).

Singaporeís Minister of Education decided to visit the United States just after the release of the TIMMS information.He was visiting the United States looking for education ideas.Someone asked why, given his studentsí outstanding test scores, he decided to look to the United States for ideas.He replied, îThatís all they can do.Take tests.î

The United States must decide what is important to them as a nation.Drastic improvements must be made within the educational system so that these goals, which must be clearly defined, will be met.Improvements that will enhance and suitably fit into the American culture are those, which should be considered.Emulation to a certain degree may be appropriate when it can be used to augment the American way of life.It is very important to understand, however, that those countries, which the United States desires to emulate, are often times looking toward this country for areas to emulate as well.

Students in Singapore are excellent test takers and may have an advanced level of comprehension in scientific curricular areas.American students focus more on leadership abilities and performance outside of the classroom environment.Neither one of these is exactly where either country wants to be.Singapore does not want to generate a mass of robotic individuals who can accurately regurgitate information, nor does the United States want to find itself left behind in the technological wave of the future because of an educational system that failed to educate.

Cultural differences are very seldom discussed amongst those assessing TIMMS interpretations.Singapore happens to have a curricular structure that is highly similar to the one proposed by Achieve in Foundations for Success, however, some of the goals that are allowable within the Singapore educational system are quite different.Singapore places a large emphasis on morals, and values.The United States educational system does not dare try to nurture that element of the student.It is unfortunate that policy-makers believe that student attitude, home environment, and responsibility are not extreme factors in determining educational success.

With all the variation in standards, it is not obvious what Americans can learn from practices in countries similar to Singapore.American citizens are continuously told that we need ìworld-classî standards.This phrase seems to be more of a slogan than an element to assist in curriculum restructuring (Atkin, 1997).

Educational systems must be developed to promote well-rounded, academically intelligible students who possess the skills necessary to not only lead the United States in this global economy, but to enhance the quality of life within the nation as well.

References

Atkin, J.& Black, P. (1997).Policy Perils of International Comparisons. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(1), 22-28.
Achieve, (2001).Foundations for Success (Draft), 1-5

Bracey, G. (2000).Singapore-Curriculum Evaluation.Phi Delta Kappan, 81(7), 551-552.

Eng, C. , Toh, M,  & Tong, C. (1997). Singapore. National Context for Mathematics and Science Education:An Encyclopedia of the Educational Systems Participating in TIMMS, 320, Educational Pres, Vancouver, Canada.

Kam, H. (1999).Recent Developments in Education in Singapore.School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 10(1), 99-118.

Lim, E. (1999).Assessment in Education:Principles, Policy, & Practice.Educational Assessment in Singapore,6(3), 391-405.

Menon, R. (2000).Should the United States Emulate Singaporeís Education System To Achieve Singapore Success on TIMMS?Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 5(6), 345-347.

Morris, P. (1996).Asiaís Four Little Tigers:A Comparison of the Role of Education in Their Development. Comparative Education, 32(1), 95-110.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, 16-19, Library of Congress